Writing Guidelines

Acknowledging Sources

The ethics of research in an academic community demand that all writers receive credit for their work. If you do not credit your sources, you risk plagiarizing — intentionally or unintentionally appropriating the ideas, terms, language or work of another. Plagiarism is academic dishonesty. There are substantial penalties, including suspension and expulsion, for cheating and plagiarism. We have designed this document to explain how to cite sources for work in American Studies and to help you understand the nature of plagiarism and how to avoid it.

Proper acknowledgement of your sources also has many positive benefits. It improves your credibility as a scholar, aids others in their research, and enhances your sense of professionalism and pride in your own work. If you have any difficulty in deciding how to document your work, please consult a librarian or one of us.

1. Acknowledging Sources: Any work that is submitted as a course requirement should be your own. It is your responsibility as a scholar to acknowledge your debts to the works of others for any facts or ideas that were not originally your This is the statement on plagiarism from the Rutgers University policy on academic integrity that governs all enrolled students:
   
   Plagiarism is the representation of the words or ideas of another as one's own in any academic exercise. To avoid plagiarism, every direct quotation must be identified by quotation marks or by appropriate indentation and must be properly cited in the text or in a footnote. Acknowledgment is required when material from another source stored in print, electronic or other medium is paraphrased or summarized in whole or in part in one's own words. To acknowledge a paraphrase properly, one might state: “to paraphrase Plato's comment...” and conclude with a footnote identifying the exact reference. A footnote acknowledging only a directly quoted statement does not suffice to notify the reader of any preceding or succeeding paraphrased material. Information which is common knowledge such as names of leaders of prominent nations, basic scientific laws, etc, need not be footnoted; however, all facts or information obtained in reading or research that are not common knowledge among students in the course must be acknowledged.
   
   In addition to materials specifically cited in the text, only materials that contribute to one's general understanding of the subject may be acknowledged in the bibliography. Plagiarism can, in some cases, be a subtle issue. Any questions about what constitutes plagiarism should be discussed with the faculty member. [http://ctaar.rutgers.edu/integrity/policy.html#Plagiarism]
   
   You are required to use footnotes in the following instances:
   
   
   1. to document any fact that is not common knowledge;
   2. to document any statistic that is not widely known;
   3. in any instance of direct quotation;
   4. whenever a paraphrase is

    

   Direct quotations should not be lifted out of context or altered in such a way as to obscure their original meaning. In a direct quotation use “...” to indicate the absence of one or a few words, “....” to indicate the omission of a sentence or more. Use square brackets ([ ]) around words that you insert into a direct quotation, e.g., substituting a proper name for a pronoun that is unclear, condensing some language into a briefer version of your own, or to correct capitalization when a passage is incorporated into your text.

   Paraphrasing consists of conveying someone else’s ideas in language that you have altered. Your paraphrase may no longer resemble the original source. Any paraphrase must remain faithful to the meaning of the original text.
   
   

2. Footnotes and bibliography should acknowledge all works that you actually have consulted, not works that other authors have referred to in their If you use an essay in an anthology, your footnotes and bibliography should reflect that fact by including reference both to the author of the individual essay, the title of the essay, its page numbers and the editor, title, and complete publishing information of the anthology. If you are citing a source quoted or cited by someone else, you should refer in as much detail as possible to the original, as well as to the source in which it is noted.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. BIBLIOGRAPHY (arranged alphabetically by author at end of paper).
   1. In citing books, the information ordinarily appears in the following order:
      1. Author’s name
      2. Title of a part of the book
      3. Title of the book
      4. Name of the editor, translator, or compiler
      5. Edition used
      6. Number(s) of the volume(s) used
      7. Name of the series
      8. Place of publication, name of the publisher, and date of publication
      9. page numbers
      10. Supplementary bibliographic information and annotation
   2. For author’s name do not use titles or suffixes, e.g. Prof., Gen., Ph.D., etc. If the author’s name does not appear on the title page but you can ascertain it from other sources, include it in brackets([]). Otherwise, list the book under the first word of the title after the article (a, an, the, etc.,), if any.
      
      
   3. To cite a book by a single author, use the following order: author’s name (reversed for alphabetizing), title (including any subtitle), and publication information (city of publication, publisher, date of publication).
      
      Hansen, Miriam. Babel and Babylon: Spectatorship in American Silent Film.
                 Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1991.
      
      
   4. To cite an anthology or a compilation, e.g. a bibliography, begin with the name of the editor or compiler, followed by a comma, a space, and the abbreviation ed. or comp. If the person has performed more than one function – serving, say, as editor and translator – give both in the order in which they appear on the title page.
      
      Rosen, Philip, ed. Narration, Apparatus, Ideology. New York: Columbia University Press, 1986.
      
      
   5. In citing two or more books by the same person, give the name in the first entry only. Thereafter, in place of the name, type three hyphens and a period, skip two spaces, and give the title. The three hyphens always stand for exactly the same name(s) as in the preceding entry. If the person named served as editor, translator, or compiler of any of the books, place a comma (not a period) after the three hyphens, skip a space, and write the appropriate abbreviation (ed., trans., comp.) before giving the title. If the same person served as, say the editor of two or more works listed consecutively, the abbreviation must be repeated with each entry. This sort of label, however, does not affect the order in which entries appear; works listed under the same name(s) are alphabetized by title.
      
      Borroff, Marie. Language and the Past: Verbal Artistry in Frost, Stevens, and Moore. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979.
      ---. trans. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. New York: Norton, 1967.
      ---. ed. Wallace Stevens: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice, 1963.
      
      
   6. In citing a book by two or three persons, give their names in the order in which they appear on the title page – not necessarily in alphabetical Reverse only the name of the first author, add a comma, and give the other name(s) in normal order (Wellek, Rene, and Austin Warren). Place a period after the last name, skip two spaces, and begin the next item. Even if the authors have the same last name, state each name in full (Durant, Will and Ariel Durant). If the persons listed on the title pages are editors, translators, or compilers, place a comma (not a period) after the final name and add the appropriate abbreviation (eds., trans., or comps.).
      
      Teresa de Laurentis and Stephen Heath, eds., The Cinematic Apparatus. London: Macmillan, 1980.
      
      If there are more than three authors, you may name only the first and add et al. (“and others”), or you may give all names in full in order on which they appear on the title page.
      
      Edens, Walter, et al., eds. Teaching Shakespeare. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977.
      Edens, Walter, Christopher Durer, Walter Eggers, Duncan Harris, and Keith Hull, eds. Teaching Shakespeare. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977.
      
      
   7. If a book has no author’s name on the title page, begin the entry with the title and alphabetize by the first word other than a definite or indefinite
      
      Encyclopedia of Photography. New York: Crown, 1984.
      
      
   8. If a work appears as part of an anthology, first, state the author and title of the piece you are citing (e.g., an essay, short story, or a poem), normally enclosing the title in quotation marks but underlining instead if the work was originally published as a book (e.g. a play or a novel). If the anthology contains works by different translators, give the translator’s name next, preceded by the abbreviation and followed by the title of the anthology (underlined). If all the works have the same translator or if the collection has an editor, write Trans. or ed., or Ed. and trans., after the title and give the person’s name. Cite the inclusive pages for the piece at the end of the citation, after the year of publication, a period, and two spaces.
      
      David Culbert. “Television’s Nixon: The Politician and His Image.” American History / American Television: Interpreting the Video Past. Ed. John E. O’Connor. New York: Fredrick Ungar Publishing Co., 1983. 184-207.
      
      
   9. To cite an introduction, preface, foreword, or afterword, begin with the name of its author and then give the name of the part being cited, capitalized but neither underlined nor enclosed in quotation marks (Introduction, Preface, Foreword, Afterword). If the writer of the piece is different from the author of the complete work, cite the author of the work after the title, giving the full name, in normal order, preceded by the word By. If the writer of the piece is also the author of the complete work, use on the last name after By.
      
      Phillips, Jayne Anne. Introduction. Maggie: A Girl of the Streets and Other Short Fiction. By Stephen Crane. New York: Bantam Books, 1986. vii-xv.
      
      
   10. In citing a republished book – for example, a paperback version of a book originally published in a clothbound version – give the original publication date, followed by a period and two spaces, before the publication information for the book that you are If the republished book has a new title, state the original title as well as the original publication date, followed by Rpt. as (“Reprinted as”) and the new title and publication facts.
       
       New Jersey: A Guide to Its Past and Present. 1939. Rpt. The PWA Guide to 1930s New Jersey. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1986.
       
       
   11. Treat an encyclopedia article or a dictionary entry as you would a piece in a collection, but do not cite the editor of the reference work. If the article is signed, give the author first (often articles in reference books are signed with initials identified elsewhere in the work); if it is unsigned, give the title first. If the encyclopedia or dictionary arranged articles alphabetically, you may omit volume and page numbers.
       
       When citing familiar reference books, especially those that frequently appear in new editions, do not give full publication information. For such works, list only the edition (if stated) and the year of publication.
       
       “Graham, Martha.” Who’s Who of American Women. 14^th ed. 1985-1986.
       
       
   12. When a book does not indicate the publisher, the place or date or publication, or the pagination, supply as much of the missing information as you can, using brackets to show that it did not come from the source:
       
       New York: University of Gotham Press, [1983].
       
       If the date can only be approximated, put it after a c., for circa “around” ([c.1983]). If you are uncertain about the accuracy of the information you are supplying, add a question mark ([1983?]). If you cannot supply any information, use the following abbreviations:
       
       n.p.                              no place of publication given
       n.p.                              no publisher given
       n.d.                              no date of publication given
       n. pag.                         no pagination given
       
       
   13. For scholarly journals the publication information generally includes the journal title, the volume number, the year of publication, and the inclusive page numbers of the article
       
       Kessler-Harris, Alice. “Cultural Locations: Positioning American Studies in the Great Debate.” American Quarterly 44 (1992): 299-312.
       
       
   14. In citing a magazine published every week or every two weeks, give the complete date (beginning with the day and abbreviating the month). Do not give the volume and issue numbers even if they are listed.
       
       Prince, Dinah. “Marriage in the ‘80s.” New York 1 June 1987: 30-38.
       
       
   15. In citing a magazine published every month or every two months, give the month(s) and year. Do not give the volume and issue number even if they are listed.
       
       Steinem, Gloria. “Sisterhood.” Ms. Spring, 1972: 46-49.
       
       
   16. In citing a newspaper, give the name as it appears in the masthead but omit any introductory article (New York Times, not The New York Times). If the city or publication is not included in the name of a locally published newspaper, add it in square brackets, not underlined, after the name (Star-Ledger [Newark, NJ]). For nationally published newspapers (e.g., USA Today, Wall Street Journal, Chronicle of Higher Education) you may omit the city of publication. Next, give the complete date – day, month (abbreviated), and year. Do not give the volume and issue numbers even if they are listed.
       
       Because different edition of the same newspaper contain different material, specify the edition (if one is given on the masthead), preceded by a comma and a space, after the date:
       
       Farbringer, Jonathan. “Budgetary Rhythms.” New York Times. 20 Mar. 1987, late ed.: A8.
       
       
   17. In citing a review, give the reviewer’s name and the title of the review (if there is one); then write Rev. of (neither underlined nor placed in quotation marks), the title of the work reviewed, a comma, the word by, and the name of the author.
       
       Hall, Lucia K. B. Rev. of God and the New Physics, by Paul Davies. Humanist Nov. – Dec. 1986: 39.
       
       
   18. A film citation usually begins with the title, underlined, and includes the director, the distributor, and the You may include other data that seems pertinent: information such as the writer, performers, and producer would follow the title; physical characteristics such as the size and length of the film, would go after the date.
       
       It’s a Wonderful Life. Dir. Frank Capra. With James Stewart, Donna Reed, Lionel Barrymore, and Thomas Mitchell. RKO, 1946.
       
       
   19. Treat published interviews as you would an article. In citing a personally conducted interview, give the name of the interviewee, the kind of interview (Personal interview, Telephone interview, email), and the date.
       
       Cuomo, Mario. Personal Interview. 11 Sept. 1992.
       
       
   20. To cite web-based sources include the author or editor (if available), the title of the text (when different from the name of the cite itself), the name of the web cite, the name of any institution of organization sponsoring or associated with the web site, the date you consulted the site, and the electronic address (URL). Anonymous article “Health-care Inflation: It’s Baaaack!” Business Week 17 Mar. 1997. 18 Mar. 1997<http://www.businessweek.com/1997/11/b351852.htm>. Archive or Scholarly Project British Poetry Ed. Jerome McGann. 1999. U. of Virginia Lib. 19 Aug. 1999 <http://etext.lib.Virginia.edu/britpo.html>.
       
       
   21. A complete guide to citing electronic sources is available at Longman English Online Citation Guides <http://www.awl.com/englishpages/cyber2.htm>
       
       B.  ​FOOTNOTES OR ENDNOTES
       
       
   22. Please note that for footnotes and endnotes for published books one follows the same format as for bibliographical citations, except that the name of the author or names of the authors appear in normal word order. Since there is no need for alphabetization, there is a comma rather than a period after the name or names, there is no period after the title of the work, and the publication information appears in parentheses.
       
       1.
       
       Northrop Frye, Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), 52.
       
       
   23. For articles use same format as in bibliographic citations but make sure name or names of authors appear in normal word order.
       
       
   24. After fully documenting a work, use a shortened form in subsequent Make sure to include enough information to identify the work. The author’s last name alone, followed by the relevant page numbers, is usually adequate. Frye, 345-47.
       
       If you cite two or more works by the same author – for example, Northrop Frye’s Anatomy of Criticism and his Critical Path – include a shortened form of the title following the author’s last name in references after the first footnote or endnote, e.g.:
       
       8.
        Frye, Anatomy, 278.
       9.
        Frye, Critical, 1-3.
       
       Repeat the information even when two references in sequence refer to the same work. The abbreviations ibid. and op. cit. are no longer recommended.

Other frequently encountered abbreviations and Latin words are:  

The information for this condensed guide to footnotes and bibliography has been derived from Wood Gray, Historian’s Handbook: A Key to the Study and Writing of History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1964) and from Joseph Gibaldi and Walter S. Achtert, MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, third edition. (New York: The Modern Language Association, 1988).